Child Psychology/Behaviorism

There are many branches of psychology in the world today. The reason for this is based on the fact that there are major advancements which have been made in the field of behavior analysis. It is worth noting that since psychology is a scientific field, it challenges the psychologists to be seeking new information with the aim of integrating what has been acquired with the emerging findings and discoveries. Such is the case with child psychology.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Child Psychology/Behaviorism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In essence, child psychology is a branch of psychology which is concerned with understanding the behavior of children. In this case, child psychology is considered to be an objective attempt to understand behavior. Its subject matter is the behavior or activities of human beings. As a behaviorist approach, child psychology discards consciousness because it cannot provide the fa ctual data demanded by natural science. The traits of this approach include the fact that it links up the behavior of human beings with that of lower organisms. It is objective in its methods, in that its conclusions and generalizations are open to verification by other interested parties. It aims to predict and control behavior. There are various theories which have been associated with this theory. Behaviorism has several theories which are associated with it. Key among these theories is the social learning theory. This theory was developed by Albert Bandura. In this theory, it is assumed that behavior is learned and organized chiefly through central integrative mechanisms prior to motor execution (A. Bandura). By observing a model of the desired behavior, an individual and in this case a child forms an idea of how response components must be combined and temporarily sequenced to produce new behavioral configurations. That is, patterned behavior is largely guided by symbolic repre sentation rather than formed through reinforced performance. The social learning theory is more concerned with the process whereby representation of patterned activities serves a response guidance function than with the particular form in which response information is represented. It is assumed that the basic matching process is the same regardless of whether the desired behavior is conveyed through words, pictures, or actions. In social learning theory, reinforcement is considered a facilitatory rather than a necessary condition because factors other than response consequences can also exercise selective control over attention (A. Bandura). People will learn modeled events that command attention because of their striking physical properties, or because they have acquired distinctiveness and affective valence through prior experiences. One does not have to be reinforced to hear compelling auditory stimulus, to look at prominent visual displays, or to gaze at fetching belles.Advertis ing Looking for article on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Indeed, when attention is effectively channeled to modeling through physical means, the addition of positive incentives does not affect the level of observational learning. In the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted the Bobo Doll experiment experiments on observational learning. It was known as the Bobo doll experiment because the experimental procedure utilized a blow up plastic Bobo doll which was a popular children’s toy. In this experiment, children were allowed to watch a film in which a woman would beat up the Bobo doll (Bandura and Ross). After the children viewed the films, Bandura and his colleagues placed them in a room alone with the Bobo doll and observed their behavior without their knowledge. If the children imitated the characteristic behaviors of the model, then Bandura knew that learning had occurred. In one of the experiments, three gro ups of children watched three different films. In the retard film condition, the model was rewarded after beating up the doll. In the punishment film condition, she was punished after beating up the doll. Thirdly, no consequence film condition, nothing happened to the model after she beat up on Bobo. After viewing one of these films, the children observed with Bobo, and their aggressive behaviors were recorded. Finally, Bandura offered an incentive to all the children if they could remember the actions of the model in the film. With this incentive, all the three groups recalled the modeled aggression at about the same level. It seemed that all children had learned equally from the modeled aggression, but those who witnessed punishment of the model were less inclined to perform the aggressive sequences. The children who had seen the model rewarded for beating up the doll were most likely to beat up on him themselves. However, children who had seen the no consequence film were equally likely to beat up the doll. The Bobo doll experiment brought up two things (Bandura and Ross), that is, you do not have to engage in a behavior or experience reinforcement for learning to occur. Secondly, learning can be latent. The children who viewed the punishment film had learned how to beat up Bobo, but they were reluctant to beat him up because they feared there would be negative consequences for them if they did. In conclusion, children who watched intently modeled activities presented on a television screen in a room darkened to eliminate distractions later displayed the same amount of initiative learning regardless of whether they were informed in advance that correct imitations would be rewarded or were given no prior incentives to learn the modeled performances. When individuals observe a single sequence of behavior followed by different outcomes they learn what they have seen regardless of whether the model’s actions are rewarded, punished or ignored.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Child Psychology/Behaviorism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Works Cited Bandura, A., Ross, D and S.A. Ross. â€Å"Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models.† Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 63 (1961): 575-582. Bandura, Albert. Psychological Modeling: Conflicting Theories. Illustrated, reprint. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2006. This article on Child Psychology/Behaviorism was written and submitted by user Rolando Bonner to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Active Military

War Is Hand-Held on Battlefield of the Future In the valleys of FT. IRWIN, Calif.For nearly a century, the essential gear for the front-line infantry soldier has been a rifle, boots, canteen and helmet. Soon, it may also include a hand-held computer linked to satellites. U.S. military officials believe the system, developed by engineers at TRW Inc.'s research laboratory in Carson, could alter the way wars are fought by giving soldiers unprecedented access to battlefield information. It marks a significant step toward the Pentagon's goal of using information technology to defeat enemies before they have a chance to threaten American lives. Last week, in the first major demonstration of the revolutionary concept, about 950 U.S. Army tanks and armored personnel carriers fought a mock battle here, 31 miles north of Barstow, outfitted with 10-inch computer monitors that told them instantly where they were, where they should go and where the enemy might be. Aided by orbiting spy satellites, each crew was able to view a digital map of the landscape, including three-dimensional contours, that gave it a better overview of the skirmish than any general ever had. Moreover, the commander in the operations center miles from the front line was able to monitor each vehicle, know its precise location and determine whether it needed a new supply of ammunition. The commander was then able to quickly come up with a battle plan before relaying orders to the crew's computer monitor. Eventually, Pentagon officials plan to outfit infantrymen with hand-held personal computer devices like the Palm, giving each soldier similar capabilities as the tank crew. The hand-held devices tap the video-game skills of young soldiers, enabling them to instantly pinpoint their position, find enemies and aim weapons. The infantry traditionally has ranked low on the Pentagon's list of technology priorities. The Army receives only about 14% of the Pentagon's annual $38-... Free Essays on Active Military Free Essays on Active Military War Is Hand-Held on Battlefield of the Future In the valleys of FT. IRWIN, Calif.For nearly a century, the essential gear for the front-line infantry soldier has been a rifle, boots, canteen and helmet. Soon, it may also include a hand-held computer linked to satellites. U.S. military officials believe the system, developed by engineers at TRW Inc.'s research laboratory in Carson, could alter the way wars are fought by giving soldiers unprecedented access to battlefield information. It marks a significant step toward the Pentagon's goal of using information technology to defeat enemies before they have a chance to threaten American lives. Last week, in the first major demonstration of the revolutionary concept, about 950 U.S. Army tanks and armored personnel carriers fought a mock battle here, 31 miles north of Barstow, outfitted with 10-inch computer monitors that told them instantly where they were, where they should go and where the enemy might be. Aided by orbiting spy satellites, each crew was able to view a digital map of the landscape, including three-dimensional contours, that gave it a better overview of the skirmish than any general ever had. Moreover, the commander in the operations center miles from the front line was able to monitor each vehicle, know its precise location and determine whether it needed a new supply of ammunition. The commander was then able to quickly come up with a battle plan before relaying orders to the crew's computer monitor. Eventually, Pentagon officials plan to outfit infantrymen with hand-held personal computer devices like the Palm, giving each soldier similar capabilities as the tank crew. The hand-held devices tap the video-game skills of young soldiers, enabling them to instantly pinpoint their position, find enemies and aim weapons. The infantry traditionally has ranked low on the Pentagon's list of technology priorities. The Army receives only about 14% of the Pentagon's annual $38-...

In what ways can terrorism be distinguished from other forms of Essay

In what ways can terrorism be distinguished from other forms of violent conflict Can terrorism ever be justified - Essay Example Political Scientist seem unable to agree on a single or uniform meaning of the term terrorism, although they agree in principle that terrorism is a means to a political or social end.(Beinin, 12, 23) Perhaps the most dramatic definition of terrorism is provided by Netanyahu who describes terrorism as: Alex Schmid and Albert Jongman examined a complex range of definitions of terrorism and isolated five common denominators. (Schmid and Jongman, 5) A common element that accounted for at least a 83.5 per cent consistency was the use of force or violence. (Schmid and Jongman, 5) At least 65 per cent of the definitions agreed that acts of terrorism were political in nature. (Schmid and Jongman,5) Another 52 per cent of the definitions agreed that acts of terrorism involved the use of fear or terror, 47 per cent agreed that threats were used in terrorism plots and 41 per cent agreed that terrorists aimed to product psychological impact. (Schmid and Jongamn, 5) Other forms of violent conflict are generally attributed to war, guerrilla activity, insurgency and crime in general. Crime itself is categorised under two distinct heads. It can either be committed on an individual basis or it can be a joint enterprise as often is the case in instances of organized crime. (Cunningham and others, 7) Crime involves the intentional breaking of the law and violent crime involves some sort or assault either with or without a weapon. Like terrorism, â€Å"violent crimes involve force or threat of force.† (FBI) In a very real sense, violent crime is similar to terrorism since it involves a degree of force. The similarities between war and terrorism are obvious. Both forms of violent conflict have political or social aims and both involve the use of violence. Guerrilla warfare and activities are generally perpetuated during a formal or informal war either between

Management Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Management Accounting - Essay Example Traditionally, Airlines did not charge for the initial two pieces of luggage unless it exceeded the weight limitations imposed by the company. However, in the contemporary environment there is an accelerating trend of charging the customers with baggage fees. American Airline became the first major airline to impose a $15 fee on checked luggage which was soon matched by other companies. United Airlines recently begin charging its passengers $50 to check a second bag. The same policy was adopted by US Airways just after three weeks when United Airlines implemented the policy. Currently, most of the major airlines charge $15 to check one bag, $25 for a second bag and as much as $ 125 for a third bag with only exceptions include Southwest Airlines, JetBlue Airways and Alaska Air Group which allow transporting one bag for free. The baggage-fee frenzy has made many airline passengers wonder: Isnt luggage part of the service you get when you buy a ticket? Customers are astonished that what it actually costs these airlines to fly the 40 pound suitcase. Airlines are cognizant of the negative reactions sparked among the customers due to charges related to baggage fees. The trend has caused great annoyance among the customers but according to government sources these baggage related fees have become a boon for airline industry by saving billions of dollars for these cash deficient airlines. According to the US Department of Transportation, only baggage related fees from the US Airline Industry accounted to $1.15 Billion in year 2008 (Smith, 2009). According to the recent data, the companies in US Airline Industry collected $670 million only in baggage fees in the second quarter of year 2009 which is also a growth of 18.2% from the last quarter. It is estimated that only United Airlines will be able to earn more than $100 million on baggage related fees (CAPA, 2009). There are several reasons behind the math of baggage related fees. Firstly, in the

Video-based training programs Essay Example for Free

Video-based training programs Essay Video-based training programs are being implemented at an ever-increasing rate across the country. While this type of training should certainly not be the only method that is used to train your employees, it is very effective and can offer significant advantages over other training methods. ADVANTAGES There are many advantages to video-based training. However, only the most significant ones are discussed here. Save Development Time. You can shorten your training cycle because you will have the ability to deliver â€Å"just-in-time† training where and when you need it. Facilitation materials with activities and discussion points can be used in whole or in part to create training events that run anywhere from one to four hours. Add Variety to the Delivery Mix. Workshops and lectures can become routine and boring. Video provides a change of pace and can add an entertainment factor that is not possible in a live presentation. Videos can also be used to supplement a face-to-face workshop to stimulate discussion, demonstrate concepts that could not otherwise be presented, and provide meaningful examples of the topic at hand. The more the senses are engaged in the content, the more the participants will learn. Build a Resource Library. Building a video and/or DVD library allows you to offer a broader range of training. You will no longer be limited to custom in-house development or scheduled classroom events. Trainees can check out a DVD or access video training online. RECOMMENDATION Video-based training materials save your organization time and money, and they make your business look progressive. Because they help build learning retention, they can also improve the return on your training investment. The next step should be a formal review of your training needs and an evaluation report to be completed by a professional video-based training firm with a proven track record.

Medicine and Drugs - Direct to Consumer Pharmaceutical Marketing Essay

The Problems of Direct to Consumer Pharmaceutical Marketing      Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1997, the Food and Drug Administration relaxed its restrictions on direct-to-consumer marketing of pharmaceuticals. Prior to this ruling, drug manufacturers were prohibited from mentioning both the name of the drug and its indications in consumer-directed advertisements without also including a large amount of technical information about the drug, including all known side effects, contraindications, and dosage recommendations (Stevens, 1998). In addition to interfering with the appeal of the advertisements, such requirements rendered broadcast ads infeasible due to time constraints, and hindered ads in print media due to cost and space availability. These requirements were abolished in the 1997 FDA policy changes, and pharmaceutical companies were permitted to market drugs by name as treatments for specific conditions, with the minimal requirement that ads give mention to major risks identified in clinical trials (Melillo, 2001). As a result, manufacturer expenditures on direct-to-consumer advertising, which totaled $791 million in 1996, rose to $2.6 billion for the year 2000 (Mitchell, 2001). Television, radio, and print media became saturated with ads promoting treatments for conditions ranging from depression to high cholesterol. Names such as Zoloft, Claritin, and Lipitor, which were previously known mostly to health professionals, quickly became part of the national vocabulary. Consequently, spending on prescription drugs has increased significantly over the past several years as consumers are enticed to seek advertised medications (HealthBizNews.com, 2001).    This new face of drug marketing has sparked a raging debate about the accompanying e... ...e of drug advertising?" Business Week. May 22, 2000. p52. Melillo, Wendy. "Direct-to-Consumer Drug Advertising Under Fire Senate to Determine if Such Work Hikes Prescription Costs." Adweek. May 21, 2001. Mitchell, Steve. "Drug advertising raises concerns." www.msnbc.com. 2001. Miller, Susan. "Rx view: DTC Ads Provide the Right Prescription." Brandweek. June 2 29, 1998. "Selling Drugs." American Demographics. January, 1998. p. 26. Shapiro, Joseph and S. Schultz. "Prescriptions: How your doctor makes the choice." US News and World Report. February 19, 2001. p. 58. Stevens, Tim. "To Your Health." Industry Week. September 7, 1998. p. 56. "Subcommittee Hears Debate on Cosumer Drug Advertising." www.healthbiznews.com. 2000. Tanner, Lindsey. "Health and Science: Doctors propose ban on drug advertising." Nando Times. www.nando.net. June 18, 2001.

Humanism: Link between Religion and Science Essay

Humanism is probably the greatest contribution of the Renaissance period which changed not just the political and religious climate of the era but also started the scientific explorations that lead to the advancements in science we enjoy today. The American Humanist Association defines humanism as â€Å"a progressive philosophy of life that, without theism and other supernatural beliefs, affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity. Humanism is said to have paved the way to the ideological, political and religious explorations during the Renaissance and Reformation periods that eventually gave birth to Scientific Revolution. To better appreciate the role of humanism in the advancement of science, we need to look at the events surrounding the Renaissance period. Renaissance, which refers to the period 1400 to 1650, is between medieval Christian era and Scientific Revolution. It is a period between religious domination and enlightened exploration. According to Kreis in his lecture on Renaissance Humanism, it is a period between â€Å"faith and reason. In medieval Christian civilization, only one church existed- the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope, who is the head of the church, governs everyone. People rely on God and prefabricated doctrines for every decision. Everyone is demanded to obey and believe. In the society, individuals are subordinate to the majority. Collective thoughts and decisions reign over individual preferences. Laws and customs regulate everything that happens in the land. People have no individual rights. Questioning authorities is not permissible. People are not allowed to think for themselves and explore their potentials. Renaissance period gave birth to humanism. According to Kreis in Renaissance Humanism, humanism promoted â€Å"independence of medieval tradition. † It shattered every fabric of the medieval influence. It brought people from blind obedience to progressive thinking. Humanism reformed the mind of people. It gave individuals a new way of looking at themselves and the world. It promoted self worth and confidence to the individual. It encouraged people to think for themselves, explore new ideas, learn new things and express their thoughts. It gave people the opportunity to view themselves apart from the church and society. This freedom bred doubts about the old system. People started challenging the norms and laws of society that held them captive. They started to question the authority and teachings of the church. Niccolo Machiavelli, one of the thinkers of Renaissance wrote â€Å"God is not willing to do everything, and thus take away our free will and that share of glory which belongs to us† (p. 95). This is a humanist statement challenging God and his authority. Machiavelli mentioned â€Å"free will† which is opposed to the collective decision and religious obedience of medieval Christians. Furthermore, he also referred to the â€Å"glory which belong to us† encouraging people to recognize their worth instead of subjecting themselves to the dictates of society. The freedom to challenge norms and explore new things started by the humanists instigated the Protestant Reformation that divided the Roman Catholic Church. Furthermore, it also led to interests not only in personal development, politics and religion but also in the natural world. People started to notice their environment and find new things. This new-found curiosity about nature set up the Scientific Revolution.